home smoke smoke report appendices

Appendices

Smoke report: Appendices

Appendix 1
Lessons to be learnt from improved stoves programmes

Many lessons have been learnt from the dissemination of stoves. While these programmes were not focused on reducing indoor air pollution, knowledge was gained about how to introduce technologies within poor communities.

In 1994 the World Bank recognized the value of improving stoves: "the best stove programs yield economic as well as environmental and social benefits. For example, in urban areas, where most people purchase wood fuels, the payback time of an improved stove in fuel savings for consumers is sometimes only a few months; because the stoves last considerably longer, cash flow is improved for people even if they cannot yet make the transition to modern fuels. Likewise, in rural areas, more efficient stoves can reduce the time spent collecting fuel for cooking, freeing time for child care and income-producing activities."

But the World Bank was not naive to the reality. "No matter how efficient or cheap the stove, individual households have proved reluctant to adopt it if it is difficult to install and maintain or less convenient and less adaptable to local preferences than its traditional counterpart. On the other hand, households have been most receptive when the dissemination process takes full account of the capacities and needs of local stove producers and consumers ? technical improvements in efficiency must be complemented by appropriate project design and implementation, perceptibly superior services, and proper institutional support, if they are truly to take root."

For an intervention to be considered successful, it also needs to be sustainable - economically as well as environmentally. For example, work in Sri Lanka resulted in more than just a reduction of fuel wood consumption. The project managed to:

  • provide employment opportunities for stove producers and builders
  • generate income for stove producers, builders, distributors and sellers
  • enhance the technology development capacity of local artisans/research organizations/agencies

If interventions can work on this economic level, then they can become sustainable, running without the further interventions of external agencies.

Other results to emerge from Sri Lanka are that a successful programme can:

  • raise awareness about environmental, ecological and energy concerns
  • educate at national and household levels about health, safety and hygiene
  • act as a springboard to other community and gender development initiatives.

In his 1994 review on the uptake of improved stoves for the World Bank, Douglas Barnes assessed the key reasons for success and failure (see table 5).

Table 5 : Possible reasons for success or failure of stoves programmes

Reasons for success Reasons for failure
Programmes targets regions where traditional fuel and stove are purchased or fuel is hard to collect Programme targets region where fuel or stove are not purchased or fuel is easy to collect
People cook in environments where smoke causes health problems and is annoying People cook in the open and smoke is not really a problem
Markets surveys are undertaken to assess potential market for improved stoves Outside "experts" determine that improved stoves are required
Stoves are designed according to consumer preferences including testing under actual use Stove is designed as a technical package in the laboratory ignoring customers' preferences
Stoves are designed with assistance from local artisans Local artisans are told or even contracted to build stoves according to specifications
Local or scrap materials are used in production of the stove making it relatively inexpensive Imported materials are used in the production of the stove making it expensive
The production of the stove by artisans or manufacturers is not subsidised The production of the stove by artisans or manufacturers is subsidised
Stoves or critical component are mass produced Critical stove components are custom built
Similar to traditional stove Dissimilar to traditional stove
The stove is easy to light and accepts different sized wood The stove is difficult to light and requires the use of small pieces of wood
Power output of stove can be adjusted Power output cannot be easily controlled
The government assists only in dissemination, technical advice and quality control The government is involved in production
The stove saves fuel, time and effort The stove does not live up to promised economy or convenience under real cooking conditions
Donor or government support extended over at least five years and designed to build local institutions and develop local expertise Major achievements expected in less that three years, all analysis, planning and management done by outsiders
Monitoring and evaluation criteria and responsibilities chosen during planning stages according to specific goals of project Monitoring and evaluation needs are not planned and budgeted or criteria are taken uncritically from other projects or not explicitly addressed
Consumer payback of one to three months Consumer payback of more than one year

It is interesting to compare the improved stove programme in China, which has had a high level of success, with that in India, which has produced mixed results (see table 6). The Chinese scheme was a national programme with effective and targeted local implementation. The Indian scheme attempted national implementation of a centrally controlled programme.

Table 6: Comparison of stoves programmes in India and China

China India
The programme focused on areas with the greatest need and selected pilot counties with biomass fuel deficits. The programme was implemented country-wide, resulting in dispersion of effort and dilution of financial resources.
Direct contracts between the central government and the county bypassed much bureaucracy. This arrangement generated self-sustaining rural energy companies that manufacture, install, and service stoves and other energy technologies. The programme administration was cumbersome, moving from the centre to the state level, then to the district, and finally to the taluka, where the stove programme is just one of many national efforts being implemented locally by the same people.
Local rural energy offices run by provincial governments are in charge of technical training, service, implementation, and monitoring for the programmes. These efforts are separately funded and relatively independent. Lack of a strong monitoring plan was a severe weakness in early programmes. Some improvement has occurred through assignment of the task to university-based technical backup units. Coverage is still incomplete, however.
Stoves are not only suitable for fuel savings and reduction of household smoke, but also are designed for convenience and attractiveness, highlighting the lessons learned from problems in early programmes that stressed only fuel savings. India has made a wide variety of attempts to integrate efficiency and convenience, which have suffered from the top-down structure of the programme.
Stove adopters pay the full cost of materials and labour. The government helps producers through stove construction training, administration, and promotion support. Stove adopters pay about half the cost of stoves; the government pays the rest. As a result the producer's incentive to construct stoves is oriented towards the government.
Emphasis has been on long-lived stoves made of ceramic or metal and otherwise designed to be a significant household asset for a number of years. Many of the stoves have been made from local materials and by villagers without artisanal skills, resulting in short lifetimes in day-to-day household use.

Appendix 2
Getting the market right for wide-scale dissemination

ITDGPractical Action are using the following strategy for scaling-up dissemination of interventions to reducing indoor air pollution. This strategy is based on many years of experience of implementing technology transfer.

  • Market surveys are used to identify women's and men's opinions on how they prioritize smoke alleviation and their preferences for smoke removal products, before and after a smoke/health campaign. Considering consumer willingness and ability to pay, as well as identifying appropriate technologies, will be key factors in this survey.
  • Intermediaries, such as non-government organizations, community groups, local government and the private sector play a key role in maintaining the sustainability of the market through support and encouragement of women to promote improved cooking technologies.
  • Public awareness raising for both women and men on the risks caused by smoke, and the greater comfort levels experienced with its removal, is required to increase the demand for smoke alleviation and make it a priority.
  • Effective marketing and promotion strategies should be tested to see what is effective and appropriate to get the public awareness message across to the target audience. Working with target communities and other stakeholders, successful promotion methods (eg. radio, video, street plays) can be identified.
  • Microcredit schemes and revolving funds for both suppliers and consumers, which will allow men and women to access credit, can encourage take-up by ensuring that there is enough 'up-front' capital to provide and pay for products. It is important to create links with credit institutions, with the aim of establishing microfinance facilities to encourage households to purchase smoke alleviating products.
  • To ensure a supply of good-quality products, entrepreneurs should be trained in both technical and business skills.
  • Providing a sustainable and affordable product supply to the consumer is paramount in determining which business models should be adopted. Factors include: quality and affordability; expected product life; locally produced versus locally assembled or distributed products; added value within the community; cost and reliability of supply - if manufactured outside the community; supply chains for products requiring consumables; maintenance and aftersales service.
  • An analysis of how appropriate credit facilities should be structured to stimulate demand and facilitate manufacture and distribution of quality products will complement the business plans.

It will be important to monitor the impact of the dissemination of the technologies on the target area. This will not just be in terms of how many hoods or stoves have been disseminated, but will involve monitoring smoke levels and some quantitative measure of the expected health improvements in selected homes, and socio-economic assessment of the impact of the interventions on the household. It is also important to maintain quality control of the products, to ensure they are reliable, and therefore maintain a good reputation.

Appendix 3
Action by key stakeholders on indoor air pollution

A number of groups - intergovernmental and non-governmental organization - are active in research and development on indoor air pollution.

World Health Organization

WHO is building a programme to reduce the burden of disease attributable to indoor air pollution. The programme includes:

  • encouraging research into health effects of indoor air pollution
  • developing a harmonized methodology to facilitate comparative evaluation of intervention studies
  • supporting on-going research on interventions
  • building capacity at a regional and national level to assess health impacts
  • providing evidence to policy makers on the need to reduce indoor air pollution.

At the World Summit for Sustainable Development (WSSD) in Johannesburg, WHO launched the Healthy Environments for Children Alliance (HECA), which aims to create:

"A world-wide alliance to intensify global action on environmental risks to children's health that arise from the settings where they live, learn, play and earn, by providing knowledge, increasing political will, mobilizing resources, and catalysing action."

HECA was launched by WHO as an important follow-up contribution to WSSD and realization of the health and environment components of the Millennium Development Goals. One of its main targets is to reduce indoor air pollution in homes. This alliance is in its early stages, but it aims to bring together a large range of stakeholders to work towards healthier environments for children, with interventions to reduce indoor air pollution high on their agenda.

Energy Sector Management Assistance Programme

In recent years, the joint World Bank/UNDP Energy Sector Management Programme (ESMAP) has been sponsoring a group of studies and programmes on indoor air pollution. Projects are being implemented in India, China, Guatemala, Mongolia and Nicaragua, and include awareness raising on indoor air pollution, studies of health impacts, development and dissemination of interventions to reduce indoor air pollution, and assessment of policy for reducing indoor air pollution in homes. In addition, ESMAP is undertaking work on capacity building and policy assessment in indoor air pollution. This study aims to increase the capabilities and knowledge needed to reduce the human health and associated social, economic and environmental impacts of household solid fuel use in the poorest households in key developing countries.

The ESMAP-sponsored study of indoor air pollution in India is being carried out by the World Bank South Asia and Environment Unit. This study entitled Household Energy Air Pollution and Health, aims to:

  • facilitate political commitment to mitigating health impacts from household energy use
  • assist in formulating and implementing action programmes in India at local, state and national level
  • enhance knowledge and create greater awareness amongst stakeholders in India
  • contribute to developing practical tools for measuring and predicting levels of indoor air pollution and health impacts.
Partnership for Clean Indoor Air

A new positive initiative has come from the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) in developing the Partnership for Clean Indoor Air. The aim is to halve mortality related to indoor air pollution in targeted areas. This partnership is in its early stages, but its aims are for the partners to contribute their resources and expertise to implement the goals of the initiative and work together to:

  • obtain formal commitments from, and develop action plans with, key sectors (eg., health, environmental, energy) in partnering countries before beginning efforts in a given country
  • develop culturally appropriate training and other public outreach materials, educational programmes, and awareness campaigns, and adapt economic and planning tools to local settings
  • identify in-country industry - including local entrepreneurs - and other nongovernmental partners to participate in planning and implementation activities
  • identify lessons learned from past efforts and develop performance measures to evaluate past and current activities, and identify successful locally based implementation strategies.

In the longer term, the Partnership for Clean Indoor Air will focus on broad expansion of efforts throughout partnering countries.

United Nations Development Programme

The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) is championing one solution to indoor air pollution through its LPG Challenge. The aim of this initiative is to reduce the risks for private sector companies to supply rural markets in developing countries. The LPG Challenge plans to bring liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) to the rural population by linking UNDP's knowledge and experience of development and community consultation with industrial suppliers of LPG and their gas appliances. The key issue is to address market and technical barriers to expand the use of LPG in rural areas. The first stage of action will be pilot schemes in selected countries.

National governments

The macro-energy policies of most developing countries frequently include no mention of their most important fuel source - biomass. The three notable exceptions are India, South Africa and China. These countries have carried out significant improved stove programmes to reduce fuel consumption in the past decade, with varied degree of success.

The World Bank, IMF and donor governments provide assistance to national governments and citizens through their Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers (PRSPs), which have become the main route for overseas development funding. The PRSPs are action plans for the implementation of the MDGs on a national level, and funded through Medium Term Expenditure Frameworks. Very few PRSPs currently include energy planning in any form, and those that do focus on electricity supply. While acute lower respiratory infections may be included in public health plans, there is no focus on indoor air pollution. The percentage of the population using solid fuel is being monitored under MDG 7 as an indicator of sustainable development, so should be introduced to the PRSPs.

Global Village Energy Partnership

Global Village Energy Partnership was launched at WSSD in Johannesburg in 2002 by ESMAP. The partnership aims to connect 400 million people to electricity and cleaner fuels over the next decade - virtually doubling the number of poor villagers who each year gain access to lighting, heating, and power - and providing 50 000 communities with energy services for schools, hospitals, and clinics. With very strong partners from the energy sector across the developing world, GVEP could be a strong agent for introducing clean cooking practices and policies at a national level, and for implementation of projects on the ground.

Shell Foundation

The Shell Foundation, through its Sustainable Energy Programme, is funding a substantial body of work on household energy and health, contributing US$10 million over five years. The programme is supporting a number of pilot projects in India, Africa and Latin America. These pilot projects focus on developing appropriate technologies, which will then be disseminated widely through local commercial markets. Shell Foundation has sponsored studies on the lessons learned from previous stoves programmes, including the huge dissemination scheme in China. In addition it has commissioned a substantial programme entitled Standard Monitoring Packages for Household Energy and Health Field Projects, which aims to develop a standardized and manageable package of monitoring tools for this purpose.

Research community

There are a limited number of research centres that have been leading the way in assessing the health impact of indoor air pollution, and working in the field to establish the health benefits of interventions to reduce exposure to indoor air pollution. Leading research centres include:

  • School of Public Health, Environmental Health Sciences Division, University of California Berkeley, research headed by Professor Kirk Smith
  • Department of Public Health, University of Liverpool, research headed by Dr Nigel Bruce
  • Renewable and Appropriate Energy Laboratory (RAEL), research headed by Professor Dan Kammen
  • Indira Gandhi Institute of Development Research, research headed by Professor Jyoti Parikh.

Though there is little doubt that exposure to indoor air pollution in developing countries presents a major threat to health, there is still a need for more research investigating the specific links between disease and exposure. And while there is a great deal of observational evidence, the case will be strengthened by more rigorous studies, quantifying exposure and ensuring that confounding factors, such as socio-economic status, are adequately addressed. However, the need for further research should not hinder the development and implementation of interventions to reduce exposure.

Development community

ITDGPractical Action has on-going projects in Kenya, Nepal and Sudan , working with communities, local businesses and policy makers to develop and scale-up locally appropriate interventions to reduce indoor air pollution in homes. A handful of other NGOs are carrying out similar projects at a country level, for example Aprovechio and HELPS International in Guatemala, the Appropriate Rural Technology Institute in India, Winrock International in Kenya, and the Child Welfare Scheme in Nepal. These projects are being sponsored mainly by the UK Department for International Development, the World Bank Energy Sector Management Assistance Programme and the Shell Foundation.

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